The armies of Islam quickly and easily conquered the Arabian peninsula before moving on to take the homelands of their various neighbours. Militarily, the expansion of Islam was profound. Umar, however, was not inclined to order an advance, and it took great persuasion on the part of Amr to convince him otherwise. Details of the battle are scant, but ultimately the Ghurid wings broke against the Indian charge. Ali was one of the first converts to Islam, and because of this, he was one of Muhammads trusted companions. Alis value as an aide to Muhammad became apparent in 622. Not unexpectedly, his claim to the throne was challenged, but against all rivalssuch as his cousin Suleiman and his fathers cousin, KutulmishAlp Arslan emerged victorious. This helps them expand Islam because once they invade; they take charge, and expand. Perhaps it was because of the sacking of Pamplona, or perhaps the simple opportunity to plunder. Some sources place him as the primary commander, while others indicate that he was a lieutenant to Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah. They easily crushed the Medinans at the Battle of al-Harra. Muslims regard Islam as a return to the original faith of the Abrahamic prophets, such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, and Jesus, with the submission . The Medieval Islamic Empire was a collection of regions in which Islam was practised. The Caliph cleverly exploited his foes' disunity and subjugated their forces within a year in what was later termed as the Ridda Wars (632-633 CE). The defeat of the Muslim army marked an end to significant threats of continuing Arab expansion northward into Europe. Although they were comprised of a wide variety of ethnicities, the majority were Turks. There, the leading tribes accepted his followers and offered him protection. Nizam al-Mulks involvement was crucial; he provided stability for the state not only in government but by creating military fiefs. Eventually the Ghurids declined, and from its ashes emerged the Sultanate of Delhi, a new Muslim kingdom that was firmly based in India. Regardless of the mythology, the Battle of Covadonga was a victory for the Spaniards and placed the monarchy in a more heroic setting, whereas the scenes of divine intervention legitimized the rulers and their efforts against the Muslims in the eyes of the people. After his uncle Abu Talib and his wife died in 619, the clans of Mecca decided to murder Muhammad for being a divisive and corrupting influence in society. His position was good as trees and a hill hindered the Muslim cavalry. The Muslims held their lines and shot arrows at the Meccans. Although the Umayyad dynasty continued in Spain after the Abbasid Revolution in 750, the rulers of al-Andalus, as Spain was called, it did not claim the title of caliph. Fortunately for the Muslims, among them was a Persian convert to Islam (and former slave) named Salman who suggested digging a ditch and building a breastwork to better fortify the town. In this absence, the Muslim commander Abu Ubaid al-Thaqafi, moving against the advice of Muthanna, gave battle to a strong Sassanian force and faced a crushing defeat at the Battle of the Bridge (October 634 CE). As a result, he was born with a fair complexion and blonde or red hair, which he at times dyed. At its height, the Islamic empire extended far beyond modern-day Turkey from Egypt and Northern Africa through the Middle East, Greece, the Balkans (Bulgaria, Romania, etc. Thus a rebellion began. Ali was killed in 661 while exiting a mosque in Kufa by one of his former followers, Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam. Between the years of 622 and 750 AD, the early Islamic Empire expanded rapidly, taking control of most of the Middle East. Women were now secluded and veiled as the number of slave women increased. Ali later joined Muhammad in the hills surrounding Mecca and fled with him to Medina. The Byzantines and Sassanians were superpowers of their time but years of warfare had weakened the two colossal titans. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. During the Ridda Wars, an Arab chieftain named Muthanna ibn al-Haritha approached Abu Bakr and informed him of the vulnerability of Sassanian Iraq. However, Charles Martels victory did help him secure power within France. These defeats were the undoing for the Ghurids. But some of the people that believed in other regions were given extra taxes. However, other Arab units stood fast with their archers focusing on the men in the howdahs while swordsmen tried to either gut the elephants or to cut the girths of the howdahs, causing them to fall off. Muhammad fled there in 622, which marks year one of the Islamic calendar. Although it was a closely guarded secret that appears to have never been revealed to outsiders, eventually other powers did gain knowledge of its manufacture. Resisting three thousand men was one thing, but ten thousand was quite another; there was a real possibility Medina would fall. Despite his power and titles, not everyone was happy with Toghrils power. Morgan, David. The general Al-Kama (or Alqama) led a force into the region, but Don Pelayo fled to the mountains and successfully defeated his pursuers. The Arab forces in Syria led by Khalid ibn al-Walid withdrew. Most of the fighting took place in the summers when troops were available for a fighting season, although the Arabs kept troops in the vicinity for five years. The first Muslim assault on the environs of Constantinople began sometime between 670 and 672. Here they could satisfy their avarice by plundering the frontiers of the Byzantine Empire, but also provide religious legitimacy for the Seljuks by serving as ghazis, or holy warriors. There was little threat to the city of Medina itself, as its high walls were sufficient to protect it against the Meccans who had no practical siege experience. As night fell, both sides retired to their camps. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. The early message of Islam was that everyone who fell under the sway of . After being convinced that he had not gone mad, Muhammad accepted his role as prophet and began to attract followers. Cite This Work This victory was aided by dissent against Buyid rule in Baghdad and the fact that the Buyids, whose army was primarily infantry, could not resist the Seljuk horse archers. World History Encyclopedia. Their reasons for doing so are not fully understood. The more spectacular siege of Constantinople was the second attack by the Umayyads. Do you think this document is a reliable source for determining how the caliphates expanded in the 7th and 8th centuries? Muawiyas challenge to the authority of Ali at the Battle of Siffin (657) and the subsequent rise of the Umayyad Caliphate created a rift between the two factions. His victory allowed him to consolidate his authority in the region of Aquitaine. Robinson, Chase. Young and ambitious, Yazdegerd ignored the advice of Rustem and ordered him to take the battle to the Arabs. In the end, Yazids reign is difficult to assess due to his early death. As the Seljuk Empire expanded westward, its main efforts were partially fueled by recently arrived Turkic nomads. Khalid ibn al-Walid (c. 590642) was the primary Arab general during the first phase of the Arab conquests in the seventh century. Sebuktigin initially ruled as a governor of the Samanids, ruling much of Afghanistan. A resounding defeat of the Byzantine Empire by Seljuk Turks under the leadership of Alp Arslan, the Battle of Manzikert helped solidify the presence of Islam (and the Turks) in Anatolia. ", 1) '24,000 Muslims took part in the war; 70,000 Greeks were killed', Do you think this document is a reliable source for determining how the caliphates expanded in the 7th and 8th centuries? In the eyes of the people, Toghril saved Sunni Islam and restored the caliphate; in reality, the caliph was once again a puppet of a greater power. In January 624, Muhammad marched with slightly more than three hundred men toward Bedr, hoping to intercept a larger caravan returning from Syria. In early 1060, Toghril brought the caliph back to Baghdad. He was also repulsed by the mutilation of bodies that the Meccans carried out. From theWikimedia Commons. Second, a share of the plunder from Mahmud went to Baghdad as a gift from the Ghaznavid ruler. In particular, the caliphs approval was crucial, so Mahmud undertook three actions in order to maintain this close relationship. The new caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab, was not as enamored with Khalid as his predecessor. In Document B, the Muslim forces could of abused the power they had over Theodemir and his followers. This led to an escalation of conflict as new Arab armies marched northeast toward modern Iraq. This information is from Document A. Naturally, the attacks on the Byzantine frontier drew the ire of the Byzantine emperor, Romanus Diogenes IV. With his new territory, Begtuzun was then powerful enough to depose emir Abul Harith Mansur, the Samanid sultan, and raise another Samanid to the throne. Saad drew his army up in the plain of Qadisiyya. Eventually, the Turks took Nicaea, a city only a hundred miles from Constantinople. As a result, Toghril seized the city of Nishapur in 1038. Another Moorish expedition also failed to quell the uprising; thereafter, Asturias remained an independent kingdom. Seeking to retain their autonomy, opposing forces and confederacies made vehement attempts to crush the Muslim forces but were all defeated; a Jewish confederacy was crushed in 628 CE at the Battle of Khaybar, while a Bedouin confederacy was vanquished in 630 CE at the Battle of Hunayn. However, the greatest task at hand for Charles was across the Pyrenees Mountains. On the march, Masuds forces were constantly harassed by attacks from the Seljuks. Though a feeble force at first, the Islamic Empire soon became the most important influencer in the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Although the latter fought bravely, they suffered heavy casualties. It is not clear if he was demoted from the primary commander or just as one of the commanders. The Islamic empire began to expand beyond the Arabian Peninsula after the death of the prophet and founder of Islam, Mohammed, in 632 CE. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. This volume presents a selection of the key studies in which leading scholars since the beginning of the 20th century attempt to explain the phenomenally rapid expansion of the early Islamic state during the 7th century CE. As the Rashidun armies swept over these areas, their numbers swelled with eager volunteers, and many of those who did not fight supported them indirectly. This title made al-Rahman not only the secular ruler, but in theory, the ultimate religious authority in the kingdom. In 732, Charles countered their attacks with a resounding victory somewhere between the modern locations of Tours and Poitiers, for which he was posthumously given the title of Martel. With his blindness, the prisoners hearing had improved. The soviet Union integrated its early conquests (such as the Baltic states (part of the old Russian empire admittedly) directly into the union rather than setting up Peoples Republics. They also were powerful entities in maritime trade in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean. Meanwhile, the Persians knew that the Arabs would be back, so Rustem, the Sasanid general, gathered his army as well. His first target was the fortress of Bhatinda, on the frontier of the Punjab. During his fairly effective rule, Muawiya made Yazid (his son) his successor. Indeed, it was used in a few naval encounters, and perhaps even sieges, during the Crusades. The battle, part of Charlemagnes campaign against the Muslims of Spain, did not actually include Charlemagne. The Arabs pursued and annihilated many during the retreat. Although there was a lull in the fighting, the Bedouin began to make night attacks on the Sasanid lines. Early Islamic Conquests. Aisha, however, simply disliked Ali. After two days of fighting, the Syrian army was slowly pushed back. The Meccans advanced toward the sun and over sand dunes against the Muslims. Abu Bakr had saved his Prophet's empire and religion; for this, he was hailed as a hero and his authority became unquestionable. To maintain stability in Persia, the Seljuks sent these nomads westward. From the mid-600s, the Islamic Empire spread throughout the Middle East, west across North Africa and. The two Muhammads met again in battle at Hezarasp. Furthermore, the Arab attackers both on land and at sea had no answer for the Byzantines secret weapon: Greek fire, a substance similar to napalm. However, they were eventually forced to flee to Khurasan due to increasing pressure from other Ghuzz tribes in 10351036. The Meccans were divided on whether to fight or not as they had secured the caravan. It is estimated that the Ghaznavid army maintained a standing force of 35,00055,000 soldiers with over a thousand elephants. Nonetheless, several Islamic states did begin to use a variety of Greek fire in the Middle Ages. Ali attempted to avoid battle, as it would pit Muslim against Muslim, something that Muhammad had strictly prohibited. Medina is where Muhammad began his military career, mainly out of self-defense. Early on in Islamic history, under the Rashidun caliphatethe reign of the first four caliphs, or successors, from 632 to 661 CEand the Umayyad caliphate, Arab Muslim forces expanded quickly. Traditionally, the position of caliph, the successor to the Prophet Muhammad as the leader of the Muslim community, was an elected position; the most qualified figure in terms of leadership and personal piety was chosen. Having come to the throne in 1068, Diogenes had little experience in fighting the Turks, who rarely stood and fought. Under Mahmud, the army was the central institution of the state. The Umayyad Caliphate became one of the largest unitary states in history and one of the few states to ever extend direct rule over three continents. The Muslim community spread through the Middle East through conquest, and the resulting growth of the Muslim state provided the ground in which the recently revealed faith could take root and. Khalid handpicked his best men and moved through the trackless desert, using camels as water reservoirs, and appeared on the fringes of Syria. Known as the Silk Road, this vast expanse of intercultural trade routes traversed Eurasia from the Mediterranean all the way to Japan, crossing into India on the way. Most provinces recognized Ibn al-Zubayr as the caliph. However, this was not due to strategic planning. 2019Encyclopedia.com | All rights reserved. Ali ibn abi Talib (c. 600661), who ruled as the fourth caliph between 656661, was a cousin of the prophet Muhammad. Considering that the Arabs on either side had no siege expertise, this was revolutionary. A book to challenge certain common knowledge about early Islamic conquests made afterwards, in 1981. Medieval Persia, 10401797. Books The Ghurid Sultans came from the Shansab family who, according to legend, were converted to Islam by Caliph Ali, who invested them with the authority to rule the region of Ghur. Nonetheless, victory went to Mecca on that day. The Battle of Qadisiyya in 637 opened the Persian Sasanid Empire to the Arab armies. Freed from the infighting that had plagued them for centuries, the Arabs directed their potential towards their neighbors. Rustam Farrokhzad, a legendary warrior and a cunning strategist, came out of his respite to face the ever-growing Muslim army. The Islamic Civilization is today and was in the past an amalgam of a wide variety of cultures, made up of polities and countries from North Africa to the western periphery of the Pacific Ocean, and from Central Asia to sub-Saharan Africa. In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire was not only a dominant military force, but a diverse and multicultural society. Of course, this force could be increased by levies and auxiliaries. Charles Martel (c. 686741) was the mayor of the palace of the Frankish Merovingian kingdom (consisting of France and parts of Germany). Syria, however, was lost to the Byzantines. Although the caliph had sought to make the Seljuk leader his subordinate and military muscle, the caliph was clearly at the mercy of Toghril. Meanwhile, the Arabs continued to wait. Yazdegerd III, who had escaped to the eastern parts of his kingdom, was murdered by a local at Merv in 651 CE. However, Muhammad did not leave instructions concerning who should lead after his death in 632. The Prophet himself arrived in 622 CE alongside his close friend Abu Bakr. As Khalid demonstrated exceptional military prowess, he was placed in charge of an army to invade modern day Iraq in 634. Byzantine troops stationed in Anatolia, however, defeated them and forced them into Syria. How did the early rise of Islam spread? Khalid ibn al-Walid (d. 642 CE), a prominent Muslim strategist, played a pivotal role in this fight by crushing the strongest opposition force under an imposter (false prophet) named Musaylimah in December, 632 CE, at the Battle of al-Yamama. The defeat at Tarain opened northern India to the Ghurids and Islamic domination. This changed under Abd al-Rahman III (891961), who revitalized Umayyad power and was the first to reclaim the title of caliph. Within a few decades, the empire expanded from the city of Medina in Hejaz to engulf all of Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Levant, Iran, Egypt, parts of North Africa, and several islands in the Mediterranean. The Islamic Empire was great for farmers. Most of the fights, however, took place between proxies of both empires as they tried to avoid conflict that might escalate into a full-fledged war. However, the coup brought Emperor Leo III to the throne. 15 April 1, 2015 Unit 5.5 Day 2 Warm up 1. Not until the afternoon did the armies resume combat. What type of document is this [The Treaty of Tudmir]? Although his men suffered high casualties, they blinded several elephants, causing them to stampede. He was not a legitimate heir to the position of mayor, being the son of Alpaida, a lesser wife. However, the Coptic Christian sailors who manned the fleet mutinied, thereby denying the Umayyad army naval assistance yet again. ." Among the top-ranking Muslim officers there were two ministers, one governor and several district officers; there were 41 high-ranking Muslim officers in the army, including two generals and several colonels,[60] and 92 Muslims were senior officers in the police, judiciary, legal department and supply and store departments. The Persians initiated combat by advancing and apparently ignoring various Arab heroes who sought personal combat. In terms of religion, he was a moderate who based his policies on matters of maintaining control rather than religious dogma. When not participating in the raids, he lived a semi-retired life in Hims, located in modern Syria, where he died. He was the grandson of Seljuk, the namesake of the Seljuk tribe (a subset of the Ghuzz Turks from Central Asia). Although they had sworn allegiance to Ali, they now began to have second doubts. Muhammads successful raiding also began to attract support from more Bedouin tribes. I don't believe it is meant to be a reliable source; it was published to challenge society's views and common knowledge about early Islamic conquests. Hence the angl, Karbala The first age of empires game used to be based in ancient times in the roman empire now this episode of the successful rts Don Pelayo could not expel the Muslims, but then, the Moors could not stop his insurgency either, especially as their primary focus was elsewhere in France. Although Manchunot Chinesein origin, the Qing Empire was based and ruled from China. In 1186, he invaded the Punjab and captured Lahore, thus ending the Ghaznavid dynasty. Describe the role of women in the Ottoman Empire. Final Claim/Summary: Based on the three documents you looked at, write a paragraph to answer the following question: How did the early Islamic empire expand? While initially they had just raided, over time they also cut Byzantine routes of communication by seizing the bridge that crossed the Yarmuk River. Submitted by Syed Muhammad Khan, published on 25 June 2020. By drawing the wrath of the powerful Ghaznavid army, he also risked the destruction of his tribe. Second, trade and commerce centered in the city of Mecca helped in the dispersion of Islamic thought across Europe and much of Asia and Africa. One of the most effective and intriguing weapons used in the Middle Ages was Greek fire. Originally, Arab troops were to cross Anatolia to reinforce the besiegers. Moreover, a multiethnic army lacked the coherence imparted by a single faith and unified national sentiment, but perhaps the most destructive penalty that these empires faced was because of how they treated their people in their provinces. How this was done is also not known. Thank you! Instead, he listened to the rank and file and settled for arbitration. Abu Ubaidah, who had been placed as the governor of Syria, died in 639 CE in the wake of the plague that devastated the region. The fall of Mecca started a snowball event and one after the other, major Arabian cities began submitting to the Prophet's authority as exemplified by Taif, the city that had once mistreated the Prophet for preaching his faith, surrendering in 631 CE. Umar did it because he wanted to make sure that Khalid remembered that his success in battle came from God and not to consider himself infallible. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Toghril accepted the invitation and moved against the Buyids, deposing them in 1055. The Umayyad forces intercepted them at Karbala, in Iraq, only twenty miles from Kufa. The unsuccessful campaign against Jayachandra opened the door for the Ghurids, who took advantage of Prithvirajs weakness and invaded. Waves of horse archers struck the Rajput army. They considered a just war as a holy struggle and if death was to embrace them, they would be immortalized as martyrs. The attack came rather unexpectedly in the middle of a sand storm. However, as his army began their encirclement of the city, they suddenly found themselves without naval support. One branch moved into Khurasan, where Mahmud of Ghazni kept them on a short leash. empire's military and political history as seen in Gerald R. Hawting's book . Taken prisoner, Muhammad was brought before Prithviraj and humbly begged for his freedom. The victory only increased the prestige of Muhammad and decreased that of Quraysh in Mecca. Thus when Abu Bakr, who ruled from 632 to 634, became the caliph or successor to Muhammad, he sent Khalid on several missions to quell the rebellions in what became known as the Hurub al-Riddah, or War of Apostasy. Christian Spanish chroniclersboth royal and monastic writers, writing two hundred years after the battle occurredtransformed the battle into an epic encounter complete with a victory showing Gods favor. Although Umar died in 917, his sons carried out the resistance until 928. The victory at Nahavand brought heaps of war booty to Medina, but with it also came retribution, Caliph Umar was assassinated in 644 CE by a Persian slave named Lu'lu who wished to avenge the losses of his kingdom. This, however, changed as the Arabian Peninsula was united under the banner of Islam by 633 CE. His rise to power also caused a major crisis within Islam. Some Rights Reserved (2009-2023) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. New York: Da Capo Press, 2007. Gale Encyclopedia of World History: War. Gradually they began to occupy the southern coastline as well. "Expansion of Islam (6001200) (Battle of Yarmuk). Furthermore, the Lombards encroached on lands held by the Papacy in Italy. Prithviraj, known for his honor, did not heed the advice of his advisors and released the Muslim ruler. Greek fire was also used in bombs made of pottery, which functioned like hand grenades. Instead, they used their mobility and archery to keep the Byzantines on the defensive and harass them when they advanced. He no longer insisted on whether Ali supported the murders of Uthman, but whether Ali should be the caliph. Central Anatolia was now open to attack, and this was the core recruiting ground for the Byzantines. A little more than a hundred years after his death, the Umayyad Caliphate stretched across the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain, becoming the largest empire ever up to that point. Mahmud used this opportunity to attack Begtuzun, legitimatizing his attack against another Muslim ruler by defending the rightful Samanid ruler. The situation was fatefully reversed when some Muslim cavalry troops snuck past the main lines under the cover of a sandstorm and slew the valiant general. Initially, however, Muhammads raids were ineffective as most of his men were city dwellers and not well versed in warfare. This battle became the basis of the epic poem, but with the Basques being transformed into Muslims to fit the beginning of the Crusading era. Yazid sent an army to Medina. Although Mahmud depicted himself as a ghazi and undertook frequent expeditions into India and against the Shia, he was not a fanatical Muslim. The Muslim cavalry charged, but the Frankish heavy infantry did not break. During the next century however, skirmishing became more frequent. Furthermore, it deterred other raiding parties, as the Arabs learned that fighting the Franks was not an easy proposition. In the end, Zubayr and Talha died and Ali was victorious. On the answer line, write the word from the vocabulary list that fits each definition. After the advent of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century, Islam started its expansion towards eastern regions through trade encouraged by the development of the maritime Silk Roads. Grab a separate sheet of paper and STD it 3. Through these methods, the elephant threat was nullified. In 1064 and 1068, his armies invaded the Christian regions of Georgia and Armenia. Now in Syria, Alp Arslan was in a position to rival the Byzantine Empire. Our latest articles delivered to your inbox, once a week: Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. The siege lasted for four months. Before his dismissal, Khalid had led expeditions into Anatolia and Armenia in 638 CE; he died in 642 CE and was buried in Emesa. Despite the reinforcements, the Rashidun army was heavily outnumbered and their foe had the advantage in equipment, but the Muslims made up for it with their unparalleled skill in hand-to-hand combat. At this point, Khalid ibn al-Walid, who would later become perhaps the greatest Arab commander, rallied the Meccans and counterattacked and defeated the Muslims. During the period of the Umayyad Empire (656750), three sieges were attempted. Then in 633, he entered eastern Arabia and crushed the Hanifa tribe, led by Musailima, a newly proclaimed prophet, at the Battle of Aqraba. After some skirmishing by various champions, the battle began in earnest. Ghiyath al-Din followed up his victories by overrunning the rest of Khurasan in 1200, after the death of Sultan Tekish. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. Although the Battle of Poitiers was not a resounding victory, it still was significant for Charles. Grab your notebook 2. The key was the Sasanid king, Yazdegerd, who had only recently come to the throne. Make sure to include evidence from at least two different documents. In this general sense, jihad, Muhammad The Tang general, Gao Xianzhi, led several expeditions. When not suppressing family rebellions, Alp Arslan attempted to expand the Seljuk Sultanate. The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period) marked the start of the Middle Ages of European history, lasting from the 6th to the 10th century CE. Arab Muslims, a forgotten and undermined group, wreaked havoc on the two great powers of the. Ghiyath al-Din died in 1203, leaving his brother Muhammad the sole ruler of the realm. Illustration of the battle of Yarmouk (636 CE)Unknown (Public Domain) It is not clear if Charlemagne besieged the city or only conducted negotiations. By the reign of Alp Arslan (who ruled from 1063 to 1072), the Seljuks had largely settled down, becoming sedentary rather than remaining nomads. Khalid ibn al-Walid's Campaign in ArabiaMohammad adil (GNU FDL) and Fred Donner's . For example, it was now known that the Hindus traditionally fought only between dawn and dusk. These were all vassals of the Ghaznavids, now ruled by sultan Masud. Eventually, gaps opened in the Byzantine ranks and Romanus Diogenes had to order a withdrawal. (This latter central Asian polity was founded by Kitans, members of the Liao Dynasty of northern China.) This time, Muawiya used another tactic. While Europe was languishing in the dark ages, the Middle East was experiencing a time of economic prosperity and scientific advancement. The city-state of Medina soon came into conflict with Mecca, and the latter was conquered, after years of warfare, in 629/630 CE. Muslim conquests following Muhammad's death led to the creation of the caliphates, occupying a vast geographical area; conversion to Islam was boosted by Arab Muslim forces conquering vast territories and building imperial structures over time. However, when Toghril died in 1063, Alp Arslan ascended the throne. Muslim raiding parties continued for a few years, but any advance into northern France was checked. The exact number of this force is unknown except that it was larger than the Arab army. He is also known as Roland of the epic poem The Song of Roland. With the Saxons in revolt, Charlemagne needed to return north, so he left without gaining the city. Finally, Mahmud depicted himself in his correspondence with Baghdad as a ghazi, or holy warrior, as he campaigned not only against Hindus in India, but also against Shia elements in Iran. prayer points to recover stolen blessings, california fish grill corn recipe, double soft merino garn alternativ,