(2010) further provided scores on a sixth dimension called Indulgence versus Restraint, originally discovered by Minkov (2011). We have no reason to exclude these countries from our sample, but we agree with the reviewer that these countries score very high on a subset of the items included in our analysis. Taras, Kirkman, and Steel (2010) perform a large meta-analysis of all of Hofstedes dimensions in 598 studies. Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. Is America masculine or feminine Hofstede? (2010), and Venaik and Brewer (2010), as well as Brewer and Venaik (2011). The Hausman test (Greene, 2008) for fixed versus random effects model confirms that the fixed effect model is the preferred method compared with a random effects model (2 = 20.44, p < .000; full details can be found in Table A7 in the online appendix). 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South Africa scores 49 on this dimension and thus has a low preference for avoiding uncertainty. Psychological review, 96(3), 506. Over the years, the sample has included more and more non-Western countries (Table A2 in the online appendix shows details of our sample). In the workplace, superiors and subordinates are not likely to see each other as equals, and it is assumed that bosses will make decisions without consulting employees. To allow for generational change to happen, we only include those countries for which the time period between the first and last survey is at least 15 years.13 The number of countries that has been surveyed repeatedly by WVS/EVS is smaller than the total number of countries surveyed. Because of their culture, it makes Japan becomes a powerful country because men will work hard for making a lot of money for their family, and it is one of the reason that make the business in Japan grows rapidly. Masculinity vs. Femininity When it comes to this dimension, the question is whether the emphasis is on the status, achievement and success in life or the quality of life, serving others and the protection of the environment and nature are the priorities of the given country. Smith P. B., Dugan S., Trompenaars F. (1996). WITI is redefining the way women and men collaborate to drive innovation and business growth and is helping corporate partners create and foster gender inclusive cultures. To begin with DutyJoy, the most important marker of country specificities in this dimension is the fate of having been part of the Soviet Union and an occupied territory around 1900. A correlation of practically similar strength (r = .85), which covers 22 countries more (N = 91), exists with a purely geographic variable, labeled the Cool Water (CW) Index by Welzel (2013, 2014). But individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in the form of affiliations that people pursue. By contrast, countries with a Short-Term Orientation are characterized by a here and now mentality that programs them to grab a benefit whenever one can. Of the 237 attitudinal items, 26 correlate at |.5| or higher with country scores on any of the Hofstede dimensions. Cohort specific effects are estimated relative to Cohort 1 (Models 3, 6, and 9) and Cohort 2 (Models 2, 5, and 8). The project identified a fifth, until then unknown, dimension (yet also failed to confirm the existence of the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension and highlighted the correlated nature of Individualism and Power Distance). This Masculinity and Femininity dimension of culture is often considered as the Marketing dimension. Beugelsdijk S., Kostova T., Roth K. (2017). WVS = World Values Surveys; EVS = European Values Studies. The United States scored a 62 on Hofstedes scale. People are defined more by what they do in individualistic societies while in collectivistic societies, they are defined more by their membership in particular groups. However, Hofstede (1991) changed the name of this dimension using the more general label of Long-Term (vs. Short-Term) Orientation. Hence, Individualism embodies a strong anti-authoritarian impulse that aligns naturally with Power Distance. Interestingly, the time trend has affected the older cohorts in the earliest survey more than the younger cohorts, for which reason the cohort differences appear evened out at the latest survey. Sex refers to the anatomical and other biological differences between females and males that are determined at the moment of conception and develop in the womb and throughout childhood and adolescence. This can be explained by the the combination of a high Masculinity drive together with the most Individualist drive in the world. We argue that this disciplinary division is unfortunate because the two concepts are complementary, for which reason a synthesis rectifies their mutual weaknesses. This logical link underlies the close empirical connection. Drastic events may affect generations differently and different generations may therefore have different fixpoints around which they adjust their values to changing circumstances (Hofstede, 1980). Its alpha equals .77. Moreover, according to Rosenhauer (2007), the framework of Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions is based only in five dimensions and more important dimensions . The essentials of scholarship: A reply to Geert Hofstede. This issue is particularly relevant for Hofstedes framework, because his country scores are based on data originally collected more than 40 years ago (1968-1973). Hofstedes current framework consists of six dimensions for which the country scores can be downloaded from his website (www.geerthofstede.com). For example, if two people from cultures with high levels of power distance meet, they may have difficulty communicating because they have different expectations about who should be in charge (Hofstede, 2011). Toward conceptual clarification of individualism and collectivism. Both men and women are expected to be nurturing and focused on people and quality of life. In addition, for the DutyJoy dimension, we observe that each cohort is consistently more joyous than previous generations. The relationship between cultural characteristics and preference for active vs. Former Soviet Satellites (N = 9; Nrespondents = 51,008) include Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. 34-36). South Africa scores 49 on this dimension which means that people to a larger extent accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. Its Cronbachs alpha is .75. Societies high in masculinity are also more likely to have strong opinions about what constitutes mens work vs. womens work while societies low in masculinity permit much greater overlapping in the social roles of men and women. Over a period of at least 15 years, these countries score higher on Individualism and Joy, and lower on Trust. We apply a variety of psychometric techniques commonly used in cross-cultural psychology and comparative sociology. Marketing Management Journal, 18 (2), 1-19. Thus, dimensions of cultural variation found across nations tend to be robust in their configuration, stable over time, and strongly linked to other characteristics that describe a societys aggregate reality. This study encompassed over 100,000 employees from 50 countries across three regions. Retrieved from, Hofstedes model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faitha failure of analysis, Dynamic diversity: Variety and variation within countries, Cultural differences in a globalizing world, A revision of Hofstedes model of national culture: Old evidence and new data from 56 countries, Genetic polymorphisms predict national differences in life history strategy and time orientation, Hofstedes fifth dimension: New evidence from the World Values Survey, A replication of Hofstedes uncertainty avoidance dimension across nationally representative samples from Europe, Historical prevalence of infectious diseases in 230 geopolitical regions, Beyond Hofstede: Cultural frameworks for global marketing and management. Javidan, House, Dorfman, Hanges, and de Luque (2006) point to the possibly U.S.-centric and specifically IBM-centric nature of Hofstedes data. Relatively weak control is called Indulgence and relatively strong control is called Restraint. Triandis H. C., Bontempo R., Villareal M. J., Asai M., Lucca N. (1988). government site. Hofstede studied people who worked for IBM in more than 50 countries. Because of the smaller sample size when using IPR scores and the high correlation with GDP per capita (r = .86), we prefer to use the GDP per capita data in this analysis. So these two cultures share, in terms of masculinity, similar values. The findings reveal a. Accessibility The anchors of this dimension reflect societies based on anxiety and uncertainty versus societies based on trust and institutional confidence capturing both institutional and social trust (Beugelsdijk, 2006; Nannestad, 2008). Psychological bulletin, 128(1), 3. What all these studies have in common is that they highlight the significant impact Hofstedes framework has had on various fields, specifically cross-cultural management, international business, comparative management, and cross-cultural psychology (Beugelsdijk et al., 2018; Beugelsdijk et al., 2017; Sndergaard, 1994). This dimension focuses on how extent to which a society stress achievement or nurture. We drop the item how important is service to others in the LTO dimension, because this question is only available for 39 countries. Hofstedes dimensional concept of culture, to begin with, dominates in cross-cultural psychology and international management. In individualistic cultures, universal institutions of the welfare state (like universal health care) create a generalized form of solidarity that frees people from family obligations. Approximately, one third of these respondents were sampled in the EVS and two thirds in the WVS. This is because people who live close to each other are more likely to interact with each other on a regular basis, which leads to a greater understanding and appreciation of each others cultures. A visual inspection of the scatter plots corroborates these statistical findings (see Figures 1a, 1b, and 1c in the online appendix). Moreover, human existence is upwardly directed on the utility ladder of freedoms: we are evolutionary hard-wired to stay on the lower rungs where we prioritize security only as long as necessity dictates such stagnation, but we climb toward the higher rungs where we seek freedom as soon as opportunity allows for this ascension. For all these reasons, we focus our global comparison on a synthesis of Hofstedes dimensional perspective with Ingleharts dynamic viewpoint. Cultural change seems of absolute nature, and relative country rankings tend to be rather stable. The U.S. falls somewhere in between. Country-Level Factor Analysis of Hofstedes Six Dimensions. By synthesizing a newly developed multidimensional national culture framework inspired by Hofstede with Ingleharts dynamic theory of cultural change, this article attempts to resolve this issue. The Maddison Project. Masculinity-femininity cultural dimension is addressed as a societal, not an individual's, characteristic and "refers to the distribution of values between the genders " (Hofstede, 2011). Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions and Student's Ability to Develop an Entrepreneurial Spirit . The minimum number of respondents per country in each birth cohort is 100. The point is that variance/co-variance patterns in psychological orientations are much stronger between than within countries and that the power of culture is responsible for that: culture tends to delimit psychological variation within entities and to expand it between them. Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles Communication is more direct in individualistic societies but more indirect in collectivistic societies. The score of the US on Masculinity is high at 62, and this can be seen in the typical American behavioral patterns. For DistrustTrust, we find the largest contribution of the country-fixed effects, a result in line with our earlier observation on the relative stability of this DistrustTrust dimension across generations. In both cases, cohorts are only included when at least 100 respondents are included in each cohort. Value orientations from the World Values Survey: How comparable are they cross-nationally? We have two panels: a balanced one of 65 countries for four birth cohorts covering the 1920-1999 period, and an unbalanced one for 95 or 96 countries (depending on dimension) for all five cohorts.16 The latter is unbalanced as it does not include scores for all countries and/or all cohorts. For a more detailed discussion of these points, see Welzel (2013, chapter 6). For example, in a highly indulgent society, people may tend to spend more money on luxuries and enjoy more freedom when it comes to leisure time activities. 8:00AM and 16:00PM CEST There is no reliable data available to calculate a score for the first cohort. What is femininity according to Hofstede? In general do you think most people can be trusted or that you need to be careful in dealing with people? Oyserman D., Coon H., Kemmelmeier M. (2002). Utilizing these . Are levels of democracy influenced by mass attitudes? The resulting nation-level longitudinal database summarizes the responses of 495,011 individuals surveyed between 1981 and 2014 in 110 countries based on stratified random sampling procedures. The third and fourth items concern the extent to which people in a country find abortion and homosexuality justifiable, effectively capturing individual self-determination in sexual matters versus patriarchal sex norms. An official website of the United States government. The clash of civilizations and the remaking of the world order, The silent revolution in Europe: Intergenerational change in post-industrial societies, Culture shift in advanced industrial society, Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic, and political change in 43 societies, Modernization, cultural change, and the persistence of traditional values, Modernization, cultural change and democracy: The human development sequence, Industrial Man: The relations of status to experience, perception, and value, Becoming modern: Individual change in six developing countries. Economic development and generational shifts account for approximately half of the variation in cultural change. Geert Hofstede shed light on how cultural differences are still significant today in a world that is becoming more and more diverse. Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. Javidan M., House R. J., Dorfman P. W., Hanges P. J., de Luque M. S. (2006). Similar to the Developing Societies, the average income in the ex-communist countries increased threefold, though at an absolute lower level. the quality of life.. To unpack such shifts over time, we need to define generational cohorts more precisely and formally test for the presence of such cohort effects when explaining cultural differences. Consistency requires to label both poles on each dimension. aFor the first cohort, items are unavailable for these seven countries and/or the number of respondents is less than 100. For example, a student may be more accepting of a teacher saying they do not know the answer to a question in a low uncertainty avoidance culture than in a high uncertainty avoidance one (Hofstede, 1980). Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries. We estimate three models, one for each cultural dimension. Higher scores on the first dimension of CollectivismIndividualism imply higher scores on Hofstedes Individualism (and lower on Power Distance). 16.Because of missing historical GDP per capita data for Nigeria, Luxemburg, and Iceland, the number of observations in the regression analysis with the four cohorts is 65, and not 68 as used in Figures 7 to to99. Are scores on Hofstedes dimensions stable over time? They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results. Substituting GDP per capita by the IPR index gives similar results. The correspondence between objective living conditions and subjective life orientations consists in the fact that preventive closure is adaptive under pressing threats, while promotive openness is adaptive in the presence of promising opportunities. All in all, as McSweeney (2002) points out, Hofstedes theory is a useful starting point for cultural analysis, but there have been many additional and more methodologically rigorous advances made in the last several decades. Although this approach reduces sample size considerably, it allows us to explore (a) life cycle effects, (b) cohort-replacement effects, and (c) time-trend effects in separation. Social prerequisites to economic growth in Latin America and Southeast Asia. Freedom rising: Human empowerment and the quest for emancipation, Evolution, empowerment and emancipation: How societies climb the freedom ladder. Moreover, as people in postindustrial societies are used to handle complex situations, to deal with abstract constructs and to cope with social diversity, their moral reasoning capacity and empathy expand (Flynn, 2012; Pinker, 2011). This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise these two existential goals differently. Power Distance (high versus low), individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, and uncertainty avoidance index (high versus low). This article provided a synthesis of Hofstedes multidimensional culture framework and Ingleharts theory of cultural change. The correlation between the country score of this third dimension with additional WVS-EVS items shows (see Table 5) that countries in which people tend to have higher levels of trust and confidence also feel that work is a duty toward society, position themselves on the left of a political scale, and feel that democracies are good at maintaining order. This is obvious from the fact that the upward-sloping cohort patterns in Individualism and Joy remain basically unchanged and run closely parallel throughout the two points in time. October 18, 2020 According to Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist, there are four dimensions to cultures around the world. Hofstedes cultural values or dimensions provide a framework through which sociologists can describe the effects of culture on the values of its members and how these values relate to the behavior of people who live within a culture. Vanhanen (2003) has created an Index of Power Resources (IPR), which combines indicators of occupational specialization, formal education, and economic de-concentration. The remainder of this article is structured as follows. Hofstede, Inglehart, modernization theory, culture, globalization, European Values Studies, World Values Survey, generation, Mirror, mirror on the wall: Cultures consequences in a value test of its own design. A visual inspection of these figures highlights two interesting observations. As one would expect given the lagging economic growth, the effect is less pronounced for developing societies. A recent replication of the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension using data from the European Social Survey highlights the relevance of anxiety and stress (Minkov & Hofstede, 2014). Figure 2 shows the results for DutyJoy and Figure 3 for DistrustTrust. Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries. Sage): Beverly Hills, CA. The final result is shown in Table 6. Psychological review, 114(1), 133. Many of the commercials we see are either very (over the top) Feminine or very (over the top) Masculine. This third dimension captures beliefs about the nature of human behavior, a classic cultural dimension (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). In contrast, those in low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible. 11.The relatively small subject-to-item ratio is no cause of concern (Leung & Bond, 1989; MacCallum, Widaman, Zhang, & Hong, 1999). Hofstedes data collection procedure and sample has been questioned on grounds of representativeness (Baskerville, 2003; McSweeney, 2002, 2009). In light of this criticism, the Inglehart dimensions provide no reliable testing ground for dynamic theories of cultural change. Femininity vs. masculinity, also known as gender role differentiation, is yet another one of Hofstedes six dimensions of national culture. The writings in sociology and political science on cultural change are dominated by modernization theory, predicting that continued economic development goes together with predictable changes in norms, values, and beliefs (Bell, 1973; Flanagan, 1987; Inglehart, 1971, 1990, 1997; Inkeles, 1960; Inkeles & Smith, 1974; McClelland, 1961; Nash, 1964; Welzel, 2013). It shows the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis. Sjoerd Beugelsdijk, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Nettelbosje 2, Groningen 9700 AV, The Netherlands. A re-inquiry of Hofstedes cultural dimensions: A call for 21st century cross-cultural research. Beugelsdijk S., Kostova T., Kunst V. E., Spadafora E., van Essen M. (2018). We prefer to estimate our model yielding more conservative results. While Hofstede has been questioned for presuming a too stable notion of national culture, his framework has also been questioned for overestimating the number of dimensions, misinterpreting their meaning, and using data of questionable quality (Ailon, 2008; Baskerville, 2003; Baskerville-Morley, 2005; Fang, 2003; McSweeney, 2002, 2009; Taras et al., 2012; Venaik & Brewer, 2016). Consistent with our theory, we expect country scores on CollectivismIndividualism and DutyJoy to increase over time. Hofstede agrees with this modified notion of modernization theory implying the existence of multiple paths to modernity (cf. Masculinity is seen to be the trait which emphasizes ambition, acquisition of wealth, and differentiated gender roles. The pattern for Trust is different. If so, WITI is the place for you! dont. He constructed his culture framework from data collected in attitudinal surveys conducted in subsidiaries of IBM in 72 countries between 1968 and 1973 (reduced to 40 countries after the criterion of at least 50 respondents was applied). In Collectivist societies people belong to in groups that take care of them in exchange for loyalty. Data on all birth cohorts covering the entire 20th century is available for 21 countries. This article will focus on the masculinity versus femininity dimension of culture, also known as MAS. A third critical comment concerns the empirical observation that Individualism versus Collectivism and Power Distance versus Closeness are one factor, with Individualism and Power Distance merging in a single pole (Smith et al., 1996). The persistent difference between ex-communist countries and advanced postindustrial democracies highlights the role of history. Hofstede's model of culture is a framework for understanding the differences between cultures. 5557 same between the two options, so there is a balance between femininity and masculinity. But as soon as people feel safe, they begin to prioritize freedom because freedom is essential to thrive, in allowing ingenuity, creativity, and recreational pleasure. The resulting fixed effect can be interpreted as the unique country-specific determinant of scores on the three dimensions of national culture. Meanwhile, societies with low power distance seek to have an equal distribution of power. The time period is 1981-2014, including individuals born between 1900 and 1999 covering one century of formative years in our analysis of intergenerational value shifts. Apparently, historically emerged differences in country trajectories are by a large magnitude more powerful in CollectivismIndividualism than in the other two dimensions. cultural dimensions with language learning behaviours and learning styles under different cultural contexts and learning environments. To verify uni-dimensionality, we also perform a factor analysis on the items that form each dimension. The long-term and short-term orientation dimension refers to the degree to which cultures encourage delaying gratification or the material, social, and emotional needs of their members (Hofstede, 1980). This depiction is a most serious misinterpretation. Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Second, cultural frameworks like ours have been used to develop a composite measure of cultural distance collapsing all cultural dimensions into a single Euclidean distance index (Beugelsdijk et al., 2017; Kogut & Singh, 1988). But even though socioeconomic development is a significant force in driving generational shifts toward Individualism and Joy, a substantial part of the explanation of these cultural shifts is country-specific, reflecting lasting intercept differences in developmental trajectories that trace back to remote historic drivers. The reason why these additional questions are excluded from the new dimensions is their limited availability across waves and/or countries. Considered a pioneer in cultural studies, Hofstede (1980), initially presented four dimensions: Individualism versus collectivism (IDV), uncertainty avoidance (UAI), masculinity vs.. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, People in societies that measure high in uncertainty avoidance prefer to know exactly what to expect in any given situation. This dimension looks at how much a society values traditional masculine and feminine roles. Our article intends to close this gap and to synthesize the work of these two authors. Specifically, we have seen that Ingleharts dynamic theory, which has been criticized for a reductionist dimensionality, applies to the multidimensional framework of Hofstede who has been criticized for a stationary concept of culture. For example, Germany has a masculine culture with a 66 on the scale of Hofstede (Netherlands 14). The younger siblings had to leave home and make their own living with their core families. Hofstede himself initially labeled this dimension Individualism-Company orientation, but chose to use the Collectivism pole instead. Workaholism is another expression of their Masculinity. We define these groups based on their economic history (Inglehart & Baker, 2000). If we explore the culture of South Africa through the lens of the 6-D Model, we can get a good overview of the deep driving factors of its culture relative to other world cultures. Moreover, we select only those items that have been included in all waves, as our cohort analysis requires a longitudinal dataset. Figure 1 depicts the scores of 46 countries on the CollectivismIndividualism dimension at the time when the first survey was held in each country and the time that the last survey was held. In addition, the group found a unique factor not reflected in Hofstedes work, which they called Confucian dynamism. Femininity is seen to be the trait which stress caring and nurturing As cutting the sample by (a) cohort, (b) survey year, and (c) country does not yield a sufficient number of observations per cohort, we keep the sample of countries the same in each survey round and compare the overall group of countries. Below, we correlate these country-specific factors for the three dimensions with a series of exogenous variables related to precolonial opportunity endowments embodied in geography and subsequent colonial histories (a detailed overview of these variables and their sources can be found in Online Appendix Table A8). Based on survey data collected from IBM employees, Hofstede has argued that his theory is particularly useful for highlighting similarities and differences between national cultures.