79, 226246. Models 1 and 2 report the coefficients for the student sample. Available online at: https://www.destatis.de/DE/Methoden/WISTA-Wirtschaft-und-Statistik/2017/02/verdienstunterschiede-022017.pdf%3F__blob%3DpublicationFile%26v%3D3, Foschi, M. (2000). Model 1 shows that the effect of respondents' gender on the justice evaluations is significantly negative, meaning that male students evaluated, on average, the vignettes as more unjustly low than female students. However, as the differences are mainly differences between East Germany and West Germany, one could also argue that the differences occur due to cultural differences between people who were socialized in different systems and societies (see, Lang and Gro, 2020). Jasso, G., and Webster, M. (1997). A drastic paradigm shift is necessary in order to change these social norms, and this is exactly what the Teachers Pension Plan is aiming for. Finally, the influence of gender inequality on justice evaluations was tested via regional pay gaps in Table 8. Some studies report a just gender pay gap favoring men; others do not find this gap. The reason is that in a population with gender inequalities, it is likely that gender has status value and is therefore relevant in the justice evaluation process. Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20120203131554/http://www.statistik.rlp.de/wirtschaft/verdienste-und-arbeitskosten/einzelansicht/archive/2010/june/article/gender-pay-gapldquo-im-jahr-2009-verdienten-frauen-22-prozent-weniger-als-maumlnner/, Schomaker, C. (2010b). Res. Jasso and Webster (1999) interpreted this finding in comparison to their previous study (Jasso and Webster, 1997) as a possible consequence of changing actual gender pay gaps over time. Jasso and Webster (1997) found a so-called just gender pay gapthe difference between earnings evaluated as just for male and female recipientsin a re-analysis of a factorial survey study conducted by Jasso and Rossi in 1974 (Jasso and Rossi, 1977). doi: 10.1111/j.0735-2751.2004.00227.x, Younts, C. W., and Mueller, C. W. (2001). While it seems as though there may never come a day in which all people receive equal treatment by everyone they encounter, at the very least they should receive equality by their governing bodies and from their employers. Post-Commun. KEY POINTS Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. Further notes on the theory of distributive justice. Verdienste 2009: Vollzeitkrfte verdienten durchschnittlich 41200 Euro. Theories of Gender: Crash Course Sociology Stratif. Psychol. How did we get here? The first population survey (population sample 1) was carried out in 2009 and consisted of randomly sampled respondents 18 years of age and older who were interviewed via computer-assisted personal interviews or self-administered interviews (paper and pencil or web interviews). It is likely that people change their attitudes when they leave the university and enter the labor market and unconsciously learn the new inequality structure and thereby change their referential structure. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. A recent snapshot. - Argument in Support of Social Constructionism, 11. When Opportunity Knocks: Confronting Theory and Empirics To gain insights into whether these rating patterns were similar for both male and female respondents, as suggested by Hypothesis 2, respondents' gender was included in the regression. To learn about the content of these factors, theories that provide substantive predictions are useful. As these findings were replicated with two independent surveys, it is likely that these are reliable results. Therefor, they will recruit enough women so no one can claim gender discrimination, but in the end, male is their preference. Moreover, the study examines how human capital The just earnings depend on the levels of characteristics observers perceive as important. 46, 352360. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Introduction to How Two Generals Led Sudan to the Brink of Civil War The data collection method used here is a factorial survey design (Rossi and Anderson, 1982; Jasso, 2006), in which respondents evaluated so-called vignettes that described persons varying in multiple characteristics, including gender and gross earnings. WebConflict theory will always exist in the gender wage inequality as long as men believe that they are better than women. Web79Conflict Theory Conflict theory looks at conflict and power. The gender pay gap has been observed for decades, and still exists. Gender Wage Inequality And Conflict Theory - 1144 Social order is kept by power and control; those with wealth and power try to hold on to it; mainly by overpowering the poor and powerless. If men are more likely to be resource-rich and women are more likely to be resource-poor, observers attach higher status to male recipients and assign higher earnings to the high-status group even though the recipients do not differ in other characteristics. The problem is described in greater detail in Sauer et al. Multiple linear regression of justice evaluations of vignettes on vignette dimensions by age and education (all samples). The impartiality (Jasso et al., 2019) of these reflexive judgments is therefore hardly given. Distributive justice and earned income. If respondents rated the income as just, they were forwarded to the next vignette. Rev. ^Due to the design, the correlations between the gender dimension and the omitted dimensions are very low, and the exclusion of other dimensions from the analysis does not affect the results. Available online at: https://www.wsi.de/data/wsi-gdp-entgelt-2019-06-11-01.pdf, Hole, A. R. (2007). You can help correct errors and omissions. The interaction effect in Model 4 is insignificant, meaning that male and female respondents both produced to the same extent a just gender pay gap favoring male recipients in their evaluations. WebThere is Functionalism, this plays a part because different parts, there are political influences and government role in wage determination. The gender gap in pay has remained relatively stable in the United States over the past 20 years or so. The investigation of gender bias in earnings is important not only for justice research but also, more generally, for labor market sociology, as these biased attitudes have consequences for the actual behavior of labor market participants. The second model in Table 6 provides the estimates for population sample 1. In many countries around the world, including the United States of America, we question and raised concerns about a womens place in male dominated world whether its a work place, at home or in public., But even when they feel powerless, unlike women, men feel entitled to power (59). Soc. Gender pay gap in U.S. hasnt changed much in two decades Observers (do not) produce a just gender pay gap with their ratings. The figure shows how much more (in percentages) the fair earnings would be for male vignette persons compared to female vignette persons. Students in social sciences from 27 universities throughout Germany were interviewed via computer-assisted web interviews and computer-assisted self interviews in labs and in the presence of research assistants. Kuhfeld, W. F. (2005). Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany. Many articles provide discussions on different aspects of the theory [see Jasso (1978, 1980, 1981, 1986); Sotan (1981); Markovsky (1985); Whitmeyer (2004)]. The interaction effect is significantly negative, meaning that the rating behavior of male and female students differed with respect to the gender of the vignette person. doi: 10.2307/2695834, Jasso, G., and Wegener, B. This study focuses on the relevance and weight of gender in justice evaluations; thus, predictions about reward-relevant characteristics are required2. The empirical analyses, therefore, draw on a sample of social sciences students and two population samples. The analysis sample consists of 952 respondents. ^The theory is based on the research of Adams (1965), Homans (1974), Berger et al. Rev. Sociol. Gender Gap Theory As a result, this causes males Ivy League students to feel even more pressure to conform and apply to Wall Street. Eine Ursachenanalyse auf Grundlage der Verdienststrukturerhebung 2014, in Wirtschaft und Statistik 2/2017, 4362. 1.) Marxs version of conflict theory focused on the conflict between two primary classes within capitalist society: the ruling capitalist class (or bourgeoisie), who own the means of production, and the working class (or proletariat), whose alienated labor the bourgeoisie exploit to produce a profit. One must bear in mind that students are not only embedded in the structural context university but are also affected by socially shared attitudes toward gender in other contexts of social life. The D-efficiency for all vignette samples was above 90 (ranging from 0 to 100). The respondents in the population samples were sampled in different regions in Germany with differing degrees of earnings inequality between men and women. The gender pay gap in a federal state did not directly affect the justice evaluations. In thecontextof gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. Reward expectations are formed based on status characteristics and a referential structure. Table 5. Gender Wage Gap The U.S gender pay gap in the 1990: slowing convergence. Experience-based gender bias questions the appropriateness of the accountability principle usually used to identify the fairness of individual negotiations. The question is now how inequalities between men and women influence the existence (10), sign (10) and size of a just gender pay gap. *Correspondence: Carsten Sauer, carsten.sauer@zu.de, View all 1. This paper only focuses on five dimensions that were included in all studies5. Having men and women share equal footing on these boards will mitigate the concepts of superiority and inferiority., The effects of the pay gap are overwhelmingly negative. Methods 5, 89102. Finally, the effect of gross earnings is positive: the more a vignette person earns, the more often respondents rated this person as over-rewarded, holding other dimensions equal. The difference is that in the previous study (Jasso and Webster, 1999), male and female students showed a tendency to favor female recipients. Despite the changes we have already made in the world, we have not completely solve the problem of gender stratification. The main differences are that respondents in general samples are on average older and less well educated. The Conflict Perspective HUM210 Introduction to Women and If these characteristics have a status value, they can be defined as status characteristics (Berger et al., 1977). Further details on the methodical setup of the factorial survey can be found in Sauer et al. Nevertheless, many high-positioned, wealthy and powerful men can and are willing to help women in coping and improving this situation. Given the overwhelming male dominance evident in almost every firm in the past century, men have come to see themselves as the dominant sex. This study investigates the gender bias in justice evaluations by linking it to the inequality structure in which people are embedded. Table 2. Experimental plans in factorial surveys: random or quota design? WebConflict theory suggests that men, as the dominant gender, subordinate women in order to maintain power and privilege in society. Questions surrounding distributive justice are part of the research program of the empirical sociological justice literature (Jasso et al., 2016; Liebig and Sauer, 2016) that has been developed over the last 50 years and now has a formalized core mapping the evaluation process. Mobil. First, respondents had to judge whether the earnings of a worker were just or unjust. Figure 1. Friedrich Engels, a Germansociologist, studied family structure and gender roles from aMarxistperspective. 83, 13981419. Sauer, C. (2014b). ^The combination of these factors addresses interactions between gender and other characteristics, e.g., experience or education. Why/What is Womens and Genders Studies?, MIT OpenCourseWare, https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/womens-and-gender-studies/wgs-101-introduction-to-womens-and-gender-studies-fall-2014/instructor-insights/, Miliann Kang, Donovan Lessard, and Laura Heston, Introduction to Women, Gender, Sexuality Studies, http://openbooks.library.umass.edu/introwgss/, 7. Just. To investigate how structural differences shape justice perceptions, the following analyses focus on the two population samples. Sociology of justice, in Handbook of Social Justice Theory and Research, eds C. Sabbagh and M. Schmitt (New York, NY: Springer), 3759. Table 9. Additionally, both female and male respondents in the population samples are assumed to have similar status beliefs about gender. Moreover, student samples and general samples do not only differ by the structural conditions in which respondents are embedded. The rewards of the generalized other represent the typical earnings of similar people, while the normative evaluation of whether earnings are too high or too low is located in the comparison between the actual outcomes and the referential outcomes. Please provide multiple citations in your sources. Framework, models, and quantities. Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Equation (5) was used to estimate the results presented in Table 7. Moreover, all coefficients are similar in both samples, even though the rating task was different, which indicates stable results. Gender Pay Gap: Im Jahr 2009 verdienten Frauen 22 Prozent weniger als Mnner. KZfSS Klner Zeitschrift fr Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 63, 3359. Amer. Third, the respondents stated the level of injustice on a 100-point scale. Therefore, this study aims to investigate income trajectories and the differences regarding men and women. Health Econ. However, with the current formulation of the workplace policies and regulation, both the, gender is being paid based on the ability and merit to deliver and perform (. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. (2011). In sum, age, education, occupation, and the associated earnings provided information on the recipients that all respondents used in their justice evaluation. On the other hand, if gender has no status value in the eyes of the observer, it is not a relevant factor for the justice evaluation. doi: 10.2307/2095065. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. Past and future applications of Jasso's justice theory. Jasso and Wegener (1997) specify that the just reward depends on reward-relevant factors x, their weights and their combination. The factorial survey approach: an introduction, in Measuring social Judgements: the Factorial Survey Approach, Measuring Social Judgments: The Factorial Survey Approach, eds P. Rossi and S. L. Nock (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage), 1567. Thus, people in Germany experience remarkable gender inequality in pay over the life course when they participate in the labor market. The respondents of both population samples produced a just gender pay gap favoring male recipients. The Gender Pay Gap: Why Its Still Here - Forbes In these negotiations it is on the one hand important for employees to formulate claims that yield an appropriate outcome, and on the other hand, supervisors have to evaluate these claims as legitimate. (1985) distinguish three types of referential structures: categorical referential structures are based on who you are, ability referential structures are based on what you can do, and performance-outcome referential structures are based on what you have done. Reward expectations theory implies that categorical, ability and performance-outcome characteristics may together determine reward expectations and therefore justice evaluations. Third Wave and Queer Feminist Movements. Just. The contribution of this paper is to apply the theoretical explanations offered by Berger et al. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60108-2, Adriaans, J, Sauer, C., and Wrohlich, K. (2020). 45, 332. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. gender pay gap (1972), the vignette dimensions are the characteristics of the recipient, and the gross earnings are the goal object. doi: 10.1007/s11211-013-0182-2, Schomaker, C. (2010a). The lowest pay gap in 2009 for full-time employed people was measured in Saxony-Anhalt at 1 percent. I thank Stefan Liebig, Peter Valet, and Murray Webster Jr. as well as Guillermina Jasso and the two reviewers for critical comments and helpful suggestions. To detect gender biases in justice attitudes, it is necessary to first use a method that allows to find gender gaps. Distributive justice theories share the basic idea that similar individuals, based on socially defined and valued characteristics, expect similar rewards or earnings. To test how actual inequality influences evaluations in the general population samples, the average earnings of full-time employees and the actual gender pay gap in different federal states in Germany were attached to the survey data7. 34, 334423. The respondents' justice judgments of gross earnings were obtained using two different rating procedures. With Mary Wilson and Rikki Novetsky. Germany, for example, recently introduced a national minimum wage to tackle its stubborn gender wage gap of 22.4 per cent. The factorial survey is a survey experiment that presents the respondents brief descriptions of persons or situations that consist of dimensions (e.g., gender, occupation, education) that vary experimentally in their levels. In addition, the propaganda of feminism and denying men by women and stereotyping them by enemies of all women causes many conflicts between two genders which however have to live peacefully and in harmony. The main effect of the vignette dimension of gender is insignificant, indicating that there was no gender bias in the evaluations if the actual gender pay gap was zero. The conflict theory comes from the work of Karl Marx where there are different kinds of groups competing for dominance. Methods effects in factorial surveys: an analysis of respondents' comments, interviewers' assessments, and response behavior. 4. These characteristics can be achieved, such as performance, or ascribed, such as gender (Berger et al., 1977). Their interviews were not used because they did not fulfill the requirements. Gender Pay Gap in den Kpfen: Mnner und Frauen bewerten niedrigere Lhne fr Frauen als gerecht. Status Characteristics and Social Interaction: An Expectation States Approach. Gender pay gap differs widely by race and ethnicity Looking across racial and ethnic groups, a wide gulf separates the earnings of Black and Hispanic women from the earnings of White men. With these pieces of information, it was possible to find those interviews that did not fulfill the requirements for the analysis: interviews were excluded from the analysis sample if respondents did not perform the task on their own but with the help of others. 9. Labor Relat. Methods Res. Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Friedhoff, S. (2015). 26, 2142. Moreover, in all survey modes, including computer-assisted personal interviews, the respondents self-administered their evaluations of the vignettes. The status value attached to male recipients reproduces gender inequalities in justice judgments of men and women. Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., and Sauer, C. (2017). Models 3 and 4 show the coefficients for population sample 1. The reference category is the dimension level without vocational degree. J. Sociol. The legitimization of gender differences due to biased referential structures could be one reason for the slow reduction in the actual pay gap. They are not looked at the same way nor are people praising them for how successful they will become., Introductory Paragraph This gap was equal for male and female observers. wage gap Siegel, N. A., Stocker, A., and Warnholz, S. (2009). (2009). The following sections briefly describe the respondent samples and provide an overview of the factorial surveys and additional variables used and the analysis technique employed. This high-status group preference is shared by both the advantaged and disadvantaged groups, and accordingly, both male and female observers assign higher earnings to male recipients. On the justice of earnings: a new specification of the justice evaluation function. J. 52, 862873. 46, 227241. TRADITIONAL GENDER IDEOLOGY, EDUCATION The subjective gender bias in evaluations of earnings describes complementary differences in justice evaluations of men and women. They are the dominate sex who is seen to be smarter, better and more powerful in making decisions for himself, his family, his business, and etc. Students evaluated the justice of earnings of the vignette persons without a focus on whether the described person was male or female. This possibility was introduced in the description of the vignette task immediately before the first vignette. If women keep advancing and taking away their jobs, then these men feel insecure and men are inclined to penalize these progressing women., Conflict theory sees society as a dynamic unit constantly changing as a result of competing for scarce resources. 1. The quality of the data from population sample 2 is therefore not as high as it is in the other two samples. Therefore, the findings presented above could reflect age or cohort as well as education effects. ^The variations were part of a method experiment that investigated the effects of information load and fatigue during the interview. The Conflict Theory plays a part also by the pay difference for men over women is so great that The empirical analyses are based on three factorial survey studies that consist of fictitious full-time employees with varying characteristics, including gender. The only exception is the gender of the vignette persons, which was not important for students but crucial for the respondents in the two population samples. Auspurg, K., and Hinz, T. (2014). Both raw and adjusted gender wage gap estimates are highly dispersed in our sample, with values ranging from almost nil to as much as 95% of men wages. The result is in line with previous research (Jasso and Webster, 1999) that also found only marginal differences in the ratings of male and female students. Within Germany, the gender pay gap varies remarkably at the regional level. 60, 4566. Sociol. Figure 2 shows the distributions of justice evaluations by dataset. The social, issue of the inequality of the pay signifies how women are treated with bias in their workplaces. Thus, male and female students did not account for gender similarly in their justice evaluations as it would be the case when it was a status characteristic for both groups. . The independent variables are the five dimensions of gender (1 = male), age, education (dummy coded as follows: ref = without vocational degree; 1 = vocational degree; and 2 = university degree), occupation, and gross earnings. Evaluators perceive justice if this condition is met, and they perceive injustice (either over-reward or under-reward) if this condition is not met because expectations are violated. 42, 639651. A second version of this paper has been part of my dissertation (Sauer, 2014b) and is available online as a discussion paper (Sauer, 2014a). The growing gender gap in higher education both in enrollment and graduation rates has been a topic of conversation and debate in recent months.